Arrays And Pointers(part 2)

Practical Learning: Using a Pointer to Function

1. To declare and use a pointer to function, change the Main.cpp file as follows:
    

#include <iostream> using namespace std; #include "Loan.h" double GetPrincipal(); double GetInterestRate(); double GetPeriod(int &PeriodType, double &NumberOfPeriods); double Addition(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 + Value2; } int main() {     double (*AddValues)(double R, double T);     double Principal, IntRate, Period, InterestAmount;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "This program allows you to calculate the amount of money a "          << "customer will owe at the end of the lifetime of a loan\n";     cout << "\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Principal      = GetPrincipal();     IntRate        = GetInterestRate();     Period         = GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     AddValues      = Addition;     InterestAmount = Finance::InterestAmount(Principal, IntRate, Period);     double Amount  = AddValues(Principal, InterestAmount);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, stop the program here         cout << "Press any key to stop...";                 return 0;     }     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%\n";     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nPrincipal: $" << Principal;     cout << "\nInterest:   " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\nPeriod:     " << Periods << PeriodName;      cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nInterest paid on Loan: $" << InterestAmount;     cout << "\nTotal Amount Paid:     $" << Amount;     cout << "\n==================================\n";         return 0; } . . . No Change

2. Test the program. Here is an example:
    

This program allows you to calculate the amount of money a customer will owe at the end of the lifetime of a loan %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Loan Processing Enter the Principal: $1500 Enter the Interest Rate (%): 12.55 How do you want to enter the length of time? 1 - In Days 2 - In Months 3 - In Years Your Choice: 3 Enter the number of years: 2 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% ================================== Estimate on loan ---------------------------------- Principal: $1500 Interest:   12.55% Period:     2 Years -------------------------------- Interest paid on Loan: $376.5 Total Amount Paid:     $1876.5 ================================== Press any key to continue...

3. Return to your programming environment
4. To create a programmer-define type based on the AddValues pointer to function name, click the Loan.h tab and create the type as follows:
    

#ifndef LoanH #define LoanH namespace Finance { typedef double (*Add)(double R, double T); double InterestAmount(double P, double r, double t); } #endif

5. To declare and use a variable of the new defined type, change the Main.cpp file as follows:
    

#include <iostream> using namespace std; #include "Loan.h" double GetPrincipal(); double GetInterestRate(); double GetPeriod(int &PeriodType, double &NumberOfPeriods); double Addition(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 + Value2; } int main() {     Finance::Add Plus;     double Principal, IntRate, Period, InterestAmount;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "This program allows you to calculate the amount of money a "          << "customer will owe at the end of the lifetime of a loan\n";     cout << "\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Principal      = GetPrincipal();     IntRate        = GetInterestRate();     Period         = GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     Plus           = TotalAmount;     InterestAmount = Finance::InterestAmount(Principal, IntRate, Period);     double Amount  = Plus(Principal, InterestAmount);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, stop the program here         cout << "Press any key to stop...";                 return 0;     }     . . . No Change                 return 0; } . . . Test the application and return to your programming environment To expand the Loan unit, we will add other types to perform all four arithmetic operations used to assist the functions that will be called to perform the calculations. In the Loan.h file, create the following programmer-defined types:   #ifndef LoanH #define LoanH namespace Finance { typedef double (*Add)(double R, double T); typedef double (*Subtract)(double First, double Second); typedef double (*Multiply)(double First, double Second); typedef double (*Divide)(double First, double Second); double InterestAmount(double P, double r, double t); } #endif Create a header file and save it as Main.h (make sure you include the .h extension) To make the Main.cpp file less crowded, in the Main.h file, define the following accessory functions in their own namespace:   #if !defined MainH #define      MainH #include <iostream> using namespace std; namespace Accessories { // Accessory Functions // This function adds two values double Addition(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 + Value2; } // This function takes two arguments. // It subtracts the second from the first double Subtraction(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 - Value2; } // This function multiplies two numbers double Multiplication(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 * Value2; } // This function takes two arguments // If the second argument is 0, the function returns 0 // Otherwise, the first argument is divided by the second double Division(double Numerator, double Denominator) {     if( Denominator == 0 )         return 0;     // else is implied     return Numerator / Denominator; } }   // namespace Accessories namespace LoanProcessing { double GetPrincipal() {     double P;     cout << "Enter the Principal: $"; cin >> P;     return P; } double GetInterestRate() {     double r;     cout << "Enter the Interest Rate (%): "; cin >> r;     return r; } double GetPeriod(int &TypeOfPeriod, double &Periods) {     cout << "How do you want to enter the length of time?";     cout << "\n1 - In Days";     cout << "\n2 - In Months";     cout << "\n3 - In Years";     cout << "\nYour Choice: "; cin >> TypeOfPeriod;     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of days: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods / 360);     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of months: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods / 12);     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of years: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods);     }     else     {         TypeOfPeriod = 0;         // The user made an invalid selection. So, we will give up         cout << "\nBad Selection\n";         return 0.00;     } } } #endif  // MainH To prepare a test for the new changes, change the Main.cpp file as follows:   #include <iostream> using namespace std; #include "Main.h" #include "Loan.h" int main() {     // Declare a variable of type Add, defined in the Finance namespace     Finance::Add Plus;     double Principal, IntRate, Period, InterestAmount;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "This program allows you to calculate the amount of money a "          << "customer will owe at the end of the lifetime of a loan\n";     cout << "\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Principal      = LoanProcessing::GetPrincipal();     IntRate        = LoanProcessing::GetInterestRate();     Period         = LoanProcessing::GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     Plus           = Accessories::Addition;     InterestAmount = Finance::InterestAmount(Principal, IntRate, Period);     double Amount  = Plus(Principal, InterestAmount);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, stop the program here         cout << "Press any key to stop...";                 return 0;     }     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%\n";     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nPrincipal: $" << Principal;     cout << "\nInterest:   " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\nPeriod:     " << Periods << PeriodName;      cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nInterest paid on Loan: $" << InterestAmount;     cout << "\nTotal Amount Paid:     $" << Amount;     cout << "\n==================================\n";         return 0; } Test the application and return to your programming environment Save All A Pointer to a Function as Argument your programming environmentUsing pointer to functions, a function can be passed as argument to another function. The function must be passed as a pointer. The argument is declared in a complete format as if you were declaring a function. Here is an example of a function that is passed a function as argument. double Circumference(double (*FDiam)(double R)) This Circumference() function takes one argument. The argument itself is a pointer to function. This argument itself takes a double-precision number as argument and it returns a double-precision value. The Circumference() function returns a double-precision number. It is important to know that the pointer to function that is passed as argument is declared completely, in this case as double (*FDiam)(double R) Although the FDiam declaration is accompanied by an argument, in this case R, this argument allows the compiler to know that FDiam takes an argument. This argument actually will not be processed by the Circumference() function when the Circumference() function is defined because the R argument does not belong to the Circumference() function. When calling the Circumference() function, you will use the FDiam argument as a variable in its own right, using its name, as in Circumference(Diameter) When defining the Circumference() function, you must process the pointer to function that it takes as argument. If this argument is an alias to a function that returns a value, you can call it and pass it the argument as we studied in the last section. If you want to involve the FDiam argument in any operation, you can declare a local variable to the Circumference() function. If the FDiam argument must be involved in an operation that involves a value external to the Circumference() function, you must pass that type of value as argument to the Circumference() function, unless you are using a global variable (we will study global variables when we review the issue of scopes). This means that, in most circumstances, the pointer to function passed as argument may be accompanied by at least one other argument. For example, if you want to use the FDiam as a diameter value to calculate the circumference (Circumference = Diameter * PI), you may have to declare it with an argument for the radius. It would be declared as follows: double Circumference(double (*FDiam)(double R), double Rad); The function can then be implemented as follows: double Circumference(double (*FDiam)(double R), double Rad) {     double Circf;     const double PI = 3.14159;     Circf = (*FDiam)(Rad);     return Circf * PI; } Remember that, when declaring a function, the compiler does not care about the name(s) of the argument(s). If the function takes any, what the compiler cares about are the return type of the function, its name, and the type(s) of its argument(s), if any. Therefore, the above function could as well be declared as follows: double Circumference(double (*)(double R), double); This indicates that the Circumference() function takes two arguments whose names are not known. The first argument is a pointer to a function that takes one double-precision number as argument and returns a double. The second argument of the Circumference() function is also a double-precision number. The Circumference() function returns a double-precision number. This is what the program at this time would look like: #include <iostream> using namespace std; double Diameter(double); double Circumference(double (*D)(double R), double r); int main() {     double Radius;     Radius = 25.52;     cout << "Cylinder Summary";     cout << "\nRadius:   " << Radius;     cout << "\nCircumference = " << Circumference(Diameter, Radius) << endl;         return 0; } double Diameter(double Rad) {     return Rad * 2; } double Circumference(double (*FDiam)(double R), double Rad) {     double Circf;     const double PI = 3.14159;     Circf = (*FDiam)(Rad);     return Circf * PI; } This would produce: Cylinder Summary Radius:   25.52 Circumference = 160.347 Press any key to continue... To simplify the declaration of a pointer to function, we saw that you can create a programmer-defined type using the typedef keyword. This can also help when passing a function as argument. Here is an example: typedef double (*FDiam)(double R); double Circumference(FDiam, double); When creating such a programmer-defined type, remember that you must give a name to the alias, in this case FDiam. After this creation, FDiam is an alias to a pointer to function of a double-precision type and which takes one double-precision number as argument. Remember, as we learned when studying functions that return a value, that the item on the right side of the return keyword can be a value or a complete expression. Therefore, you can simplify the implementation of the Circumference() function as follows: double Circumference(double (*FDiam)(double R), double Rad) {     const double PI = 3.14159;     return (*FDiam)(Rad) * PI; }

Practical Learning: Passing a Function as Argument

1. To declare a function that takes another function as argument, in the Loan.h file, declare the following function:
    

#ifndef LoanH #define LoanH namespace Finance { typedef double (*Add)(double R, double T); typedef double (*Subtract)(double First, double Second); typedef double (*Multiply)(double First, double Second); typedef double (*Divide)(double First, double Second); double InterestAmount(double P, double r, double t); double Rate(double (*AP)(double A, double P),                        double a, double p, double t); } #endif

2. In the Loan.cpp, implement the function as follows:
    

#include "Loan.h" #pragma package(smart_init) namespace Finance {     // Interest = Principal * rate * time in years     double InterestAmount(double P, double r, double t)     {         return P * (r / 100) * t;     }     double Rate(double (*AP)(double A, double P),                        double a, double p, double t)     {         double AMinusP = (*AP)(a, p);         double Pt      = p * t;         return (AMinusP / Pt) * 100;     } }

3. To provide a function used to get the future value of a loan, in the Main.h file, define a GetAmount() function as follows:
    

#if !defined MainH #define      MainH . . . No Change namespace LoanProcessing {     double GetAmount()     {         double A;         cout << "Enter the future value: $"; cin >> A;         return A; } . . . No Change #endif  // MainH

4. To call the new function, change the Main.cpp file as follows:
    

#include <iostream> #include "Main.h" #include "Loan.h" using namespace std; using namespace Accessories; int main() {     double Principal, Amount, IntRate, Period, InterestAmount;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "This program allows you to perform estimations on loans\n";     cout << "\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Amount    = LoanProcessing::GetAmount();     Principal = LoanProcessing::GetPrincipal();     Period    = LoanProcessing::GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     IntRate   = Finance::Rate(Subtraction, Amount, Principal, Period);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, stop the program here         cout << "Press any key to stop...";         return 0;     }     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nFuture Value: $" << Amount;     cout << "\nPrincipal:    $" << Principal;     cout << "\nPeriod:        " << Periods << PeriodName;     cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nInterest on Loan: " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\n==================================\n";     return 0; }

5. Test the application. Here is an example:
    

This program allows you to perform estimations on loans %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Loan Processing Enter the future value: $4500 Enter the Principal: $3000 How do you want to enter the length of time? 1 - In Days 2 - In Months 3 - In Years Your Choice: 3 Enter the number of years: 3 ================================== Estimate on loan ---------------------------------- Future Value: $4500 Principal:    $3000 Period:        3 Years -------------------------------- Interest on Loan: 16.6667% ================================== Press any key to continue...

6. To provide more options to the user and make the program more complete, you can create a menu, allowing the clerk to select the type of calculation. A customer may want to know how much time would be a better length of time to pay a loan. The customer may want to find the differences among the time (period), the rate of interest, the monthly payment the customer can afford, the length of time (the number of days, months or years the customer wants to pay the loan.
   To allow the user to select the type of calculation to perform, in the Main.h file, define the following functions:
    

#if !defined MainH #define      MainH #include <iostream> #include "Loan.h" using namespace std; namespace Accessories { // Accessory Functions // This function adds two values double Addition(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 + Value2; } // This function takes two arguments. // It subtracts the second from the first double Subtraction(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 - Value2; } // This function multiplies two numbers double Multiplication(double Value1, double Value2) {     return Value1 * Value2; } // This function takes two arguments // If the second argument is 0, the function returns 0 // Otherwise, the first argument is divided by the second double Division(double Numerator, double Denominator) {     if( Denominator == 0 )         return 0;     // else is implied     return Numerator / Denominator; } }   // namespace Accessories namespace LoanProcessing { double GetAmount() {     double A;     cout << "Enter the future value: $"; cin >> A;     return A; } double GetPrincipal() {     double P;     cout << "Enter the Principal: $"; cin >> P;     return P; } double GetInterestRate() {     double r;     cout << "Enter the Interest Rate (%): "; cin >> r;     return r; } double GetPeriod(int &TypeOfPeriod, double &Periods) {     cout << "How do you want to enter the length of time?";     cout << "\n1 - In Days";     cout << "\n2 - In Months";     cout << "\n3 - In Years";     cout << "\nYour Choice: "; cin >> TypeOfPeriod;     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of days: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods / 360);     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of months: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods / 12);     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of years: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods);     }     else     {         TypeOfPeriod = 0;         // The user made an invalid selection. So, we will give up         cout << "\nBad Selection\n";         return 0.00;     } } int SelectCalculationType() {     int Answer;     cout << "What kind of value do you want to estimate?";     cout << "\n1 - Calculate (only) the interest paid on the loan";     cout << "\n2 - Estimate the future value of the entire loan";     cout << "\nYour choice: ";     cin >> Answer;     return Answer; } void ProcessInterestAmount() {     double Principal, IntRate, Period, InterestAmount;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "\nWe will calculate the interest amount payed on a loan\n";     cout << "\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Principal      = LoanProcessing::GetPrincipal();     IntRate        = LoanProcessing::GetInterestRate();     Period         = LoanProcessing::GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     InterestAmount = Finance::InterestAmount(Principal, IntRate, Period);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, stop the program here         cout << "Press any key to stop...";                 return;     }     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "\n";     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nPrincipal: $" << Principal;     cout << "\nInterest:   " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\nPeriod:     " << Periods << PeriodName;     cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nInterest paid on Loan: $" << InterestAmount;     cout << "\n==================================\n"; } void ProcessRateOfInterest() {     double Principal, Amount, IntRate, Period;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "\nWe will calculate the interest rate applied on a loan\n";     cout << "\n%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Amount    = LoanProcessing::GetAmount();     Principal = LoanProcessing::GetPrincipal();     Period    = LoanProcessing::GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     IntRate   = Finance::Rate(Accessories::Subtraction, Amount, Principal, Period);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, stop the program here         cout << "Press any key to stop...";                 return;     }     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nFuture Value: $" << Amount;     cout << "\nPrincipal:    $" << Principal;     cout << "\nPeriod:        " << Periods << PeriodName;     cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nInterest on Loan: " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\n==================================\n"; } } #endif  // MainH 1.    To test the new version of the program, change the Main.cpp file as follows:   #include <iostream> #include "Main.h" #include "Loan.h" using namespace std; using namespace Accessories; using namespace LoanProcessing; int main() {     int TypeOfCalculation;     cout << "This program allows you to perform estimations on loans\n";     TypeOfCalculation = SelectCalculationType();     switch(TypeOfCalculation)     {     case 1:         ProcessInterestAmount();         break;     case 2:         ProcessRateOfInterest();         break;     default:         cout << "\nInvalid Selection\n";     }     return 0; } 2.    Test the application and return to your programming environment 3.    To allow the clerk to process other types of calculations, in the Loan.h file, declare the following functions:   #ifndef LoanH #define LoanH namespace Finance { typedef double (*Add)(double R, double T); typedef double (*Subtract)(double First, double Second); typedef double (*Multiply)(double First, double Second); typedef double (*Divide)(double First, double Second); double InterestAmount(double P, double r, double t); double Rate(double (*AP)(double A, double P),                        double a, double p, double t); double TotalLoanAmount(double P, double r, double t); double PrincipalAmount(double (*RT)(double a, double b),                                   double R, double T, double A); double Period(double (*AP)(double A, double P),                          double (*PR)(double P, double R),                          double a, double p, double r); double Period(double (*AP)(double A, double P),                          double a, double p, double r); } #endif 4.    In the Loan.cpp file, implement the functions:   #include "Loan.h" #pragma package(smart_init) namespace Finance {     // Interest = Principal * rate * time in years     double InterestAmount(double P, double r, double t)     {         return P * (r / 100) * t;     }     //                            Amount - Principal     // Interest rate of a loan = --------------------     //                            Principal * Period     double Rate(double (*AP)(double A, double P),                        double a, double p, double t)     {         double AMinusP = (*AP)(a, p);         double Pt      = p * t;         return (AMinusP / Pt) * 100;     }     // Amount = Principal(1 + Rate * Interest)     double TotalLoanAmount(double P, double r, double t)     {         return P * (1 + ((r / 100) * t));     }     //                  Amount     // Principal = ------------------     //             1 + Rate * Period     double PrincipalAmount(double (*RT)(double a, double b),                                   double R, double T, double A)     {         double RateOnTime = (*RT)(R/100, T);         return A / (1 + RateOnTime);     } //                            Amount - Principal // Interest rate of a loan = -------------------- //                            Principal * Rate // The following function provides a very simplistic way to calculate the // length of time of a loan. In fact, there is no checking on the // periodic value (whether the value is in days, quarters, months, or // years, and there is no algorithm to check the value of the time     double Period(double (*AP)(double A, double P),                          double (*PR)(double P, double R),                          double a, double p, double r)     {         double AMinusP = (*AP)(a, p);         double PTimesR = (*PR)(p, r / 100);         return AMinusP / PTimesR;     } } 5.    To expand the menu, change the Main.h file accordingly:   #if !defined MainH #define      MainH #include <iostream> #include "Loan.h" using namespace std; namespace Accessories {     // Accessory Functions     // This function adds two values     double Addition(double Value1, double Value2)     {         return Value1 + Value2;     }     // This function takes two arguments.     // It subtracts the second from the first     double Subtraction(double Value1, double Value2)     {         return Value1 - Value2;     }     // This function multiplies two numbers     double Multiplication(double Value1, double Value2)     {         return Value1 * Value2;     }     // This function takes two arguments     // If the second argument is 0, the function returns 0     // Otherwise, the first argument is divided by the second     double Division(double Numerator, double Denominator)     {         if( Denominator == 0 )             return 0;         // else is implied         return Numerator / Denominator;     } }   // namespace Accessories namespace LoanProcessing {     double GetAmount()     {         double A;         cout << "Enter the future value: $"; cin >> A;         return A;     }     double GetPrincipal()     {         double P;         cout << "Enter the Principal: $"; cin >> P;         return P;     } double GetInterestRate() {     double r;     cout << "Enter the Interest Rate (%): "; cin >> r;     return r; } double GetPeriod(int &TypeOfPeriod, double &Periods) {     cout << "How do you want to enter the length of time?";     cout << "\n1 - In Days";     cout << "\n2 - In Months";     cout << "\n3 - In Years";     cout << "\nYour Choice: "; cin >> TypeOfPeriod;     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of days: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods / 360);     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of months: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods / 12);     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         cout << "Enter the number of years: "; cin >> Periods;         return static_cast<double>(Periods);     }     else     {         TypeOfPeriod = 0;         // The user made an invalid selection. So, we will give up         cout << "\nBad Selection\n";         return 0.00;     } } int SelectCalculationType() {     int Answer;     cout << "What kind of value do you want to estimate?";     cout << "\n1 - Calculate (only) the interest paid on the loan";     cout << "\n2 - Calculate the total amount owed on a loan";     cout << "\n3 - Estimate the interest rate applied on a loan";     cout << "\n4 - Find the amount given as loan";     cout << "\n5 - Find the approximate length of time of a loan";     cout << "\nYour choice: ";     cin >> Answer;     return Answer; } void ProcessInterestAmount(bool GetTotalAmount = false) {     double Principal, Amount, IntRate, Period, InterestAmount;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "\n=====================================================";     cout << "\nWe will calculate the interest amount payed on a loan\n";     cout << "\n=====================================================";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Principal      = LoanProcessing::GetPrincipal();     IntRate        = LoanProcessing::GetInterestRate();     Period         = LoanProcessing::GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, get out of the function         cout << "\nThe program will stop";         return;     }     InterestAmount = Finance::InterestAmount(Principal, IntRate, Period);     Amount         = Finance::TotalLoanAmount(Principal, IntRate, Period);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "\n";     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nPrincipal: $" << Principal;     cout << "\nInterest:   " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\nPeriod:     " << Periods << PeriodName;     cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nInterest paid on Loan: $" << InterestAmount;     if( GetTotalAmount == true )         cout << "\nTotal Amount Paid:     $" << Amount;     cout << "\n==================================\n"; } void ProcessRateOfInterest() {     double Principal, Amount, IntRate, Period;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "\n=====================================================";     cout << "\nWe will calculate the interest rate applied on a loan\n";     cout << "\n=====================================================";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Amount    = LoanProcessing::GetAmount();     Principal = LoanProcessing::GetPrincipal();     Period    = LoanProcessing::GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, get out of the function         cout << "\nThe program will stop";         return;     }     IntRate   = Finance::Rate(Accessories::Subtraction, Amount,                               Principal, Period);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nFuture Value: $" << Amount;     cout << "\nPrincipal:    $" << Principal;     cout << "\nPeriod:        " << Periods << PeriodName;     cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nInterest on Loan: " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\n==================================\n"; } void ProcessPrincipal() {     double Principal, Amount, IntRate, Period;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "\n==================================================";     cout << "\nWe will calculate the principal value of the loan";     cout << "\n==================================================";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Amount    = LoanProcessing::GetAmount();     IntRate   = LoanProcessing::GetInterestRate();     Period    = LoanProcessing::GetPeriod(TypeOfPeriod, Periods);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 0 )     {         // Since the user made a bad selection, get out of the function         cout << "\nThe program will stop";         return;     }     Principal = Finance::PrincipalAmount(Accessories::Multiplication,                                          IntRate, Period, Amount);     if( TypeOfPeriod == 1 )     {         PeriodName = " Days";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 2 )     {         PeriodName = " Months";     }     else if( TypeOfPeriod == 3 )     {         PeriodName = " Years";     }     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nFuture Value: $" << Amount;     cout << "\nInterest on Loan: " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\nPeriod:        " << Periods << PeriodName;     cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nPrincipal:    $" << Principal;     cout << "\n==================================\n"; } void ProcessPeriod() {     double Principal, Amount, IntRate, TimeSpan;     int    TypeOfPeriod;     double Periods;     string PeriodName;     cout << "\n=====================================================";     cout << "\nWe will calculate the amount of time to pay a loan\n";     cout << "\n=====================================================";     cout << "\nLoan Processing\n";     Amount    = LoanProcessing::GetAmount();     Principal = LoanProcessing::GetPrincipal();     IntRate   = LoanProcessing::GetInterestRate();     TimeSpan  = Finance::Period(Accessories::Subtraction,                                 Accessories::Multiplication,                                 Amount, Principal, IntRate);     cout << "\n==================================";     cout << "\nEstimate on loan";     cout << "\n----------------------------------";     cout << "\nFuture Value: $" << Amount;     cout << "\nPrincipal:    $" << Principal;     cout << "\nInterest on Loan: " << IntRate << "%";     cout << "\n--------------------------------";     cout << "\nPeriod:        " << TimeSpan * 12 << " Months";     cout << "\n==================================\n"; } } #endif  // MainH 6.    To prepare for a test, in the Main.cpp, add the new options in the main() function:   #include <iostream> #include "Main.h" #include "Loan.h" using namespace std; using namespace Accessories; using namespace LoanProcessing; int main() {     int TypeOfCalculation;     cout << "This program allows you to perform estimations on loans\n";     TypeOfCalculation = SelectCalculationType();     switch(TypeOfCalculation)     {     case 1:         ProcessInterestAmount();         break;     case 2:         ProcessInterestAmount(true);         break;     case 3:         ProcessRateOfInterest();         break;     case 4:         ProcessPrincipal();         break;     case 5:         ProcessPeriod();         break;     default:         cout << "\nInvalid Selection\n";     }     return 0; } 1.    Test the application. Here is an example:   This program allows you to perform estimations on loans What kind of value do you want to estimate? 1 - Calculate (only) the interest paid on the loan 2 - Calculate the total amount owed on a loan 3 - Estimate the interest rate applied on a loan 4 - Find the amount given as loan 5 - Find the approximate length of time of a loan Your choice: 5 ===================================================== We will calculate the amount of time to pay a loan ===================================================== Loan Processing Enter the future value: $824 Enter the Principal: $800 Enter the Interest Rate (%): 9 ================================== Estimate on loan ---------------------------------- Future Value: $824 Principal:    $800 Interest on Loan: 9% -------------------------------- Period:        4 Months ================================== Press any key to continue... 2.    Return to your programming environment and save everything An Array of (Pointers to) Functions To further refine the call to a group of functions that perform the same kind of task, you can declare an array of pointers to a type of function. Before creating an array of pointers to function, you must first know or have the functions you would be referring to. These functions must have a similar signature. This means that they must return the same type of value, they must have the same number of arguments and they must  have the  same type(s) of argument(s). Here are examples of such functions: double Diameter(double Radius) {     return Radius * 2; } double Circumference(double Radius) {     return Diameter(Radius) * PI; } double Area(double Radius) {     return Radius * Radius * PI; } To declare an array of pointers to function, you can first define an alias to the variable. This is an example: typedef double (*Measure)(double R); After this definition, as we learned already, Measure is an alias to a function that takes a double type of variable and returns a double value. Using this name, you can declare an array of functions. The members of the array are names of the functions that would compose the array. Here is an example: Measure Calc[] = { Diameter, Circumference, Area }; You can initialize each member using its index and calling the corresponding function. This can be done as follows: #include <iostream> using namespace std; const double PI = 3.14159; double Diameter(double Radius) {     return Radius * 2; } double Circumference(double Radius) {     return Diameter(Radius) * PI; } double Area(double Radius) {     return Radius * Radius * PI; } int main() {     typedef double (*Measure)(double R);     double R = 12.55;     Measure Calc[] = { Diameter, Circumference, Area };     double D = Calc[0](R);     double C = Calc[1](R);     double A = Calc[2](R);     cout << "Circle Characteristics";     cout << "\nDiameter:      " << D;     cout << "\nCircumference: " << C;     cout << "\nArea:          " << A << endl;     return 0; } This would produce: Circle Characteristics Diameter:      25.1 Circumference: 78.8539 Area:          494.808 Press any key to continue...  Practical Learning: Using an Array of Functions Create a new project using the Console Wizard To save the project, create a new folder called Multiple Choice1 Save the unit as Exercise and save the project as MCQ1 To experiment with an array of functions, change the Exercise.cpp file as follows:   #include <iostream> using namespace std; typedef char (*Question)(); enum TMCQuestion { One, Two, Three, Four, Five }; char Sequence() {     char Answer;     cout << "Which sequence of numbers does not appear to follow "          << "a recognizable order?";     cout << "\n(a)   3   9  27  33";     cout << "\n(b)   3   6   9  12";     cout << "\n(c)   2   4   6   8";     cout << "\n(d) 102 204 408 816";     cout << "\nAnswer: "; cin >> Answer;     return Answer; } char Expression() {     char Response;     cout << "Select the best expression to complete the empty space";     cout << "\nWhen ... drugs to a business address, traffickers often "          << "omit a recipient name";     cout << "\n(a) to send";     cout << "\n(b) senders";     cout << "\n(c) sending";     cout << "\n(d) dealing";     cout << "\nAnswer: "; cin >> Response;     return Response; } char Sentence() {     char Answer;     cout << "Even ... there are 76,000 lawyers in that city, it is still "          << "a small community";     cout << "\n(a) although";     cout << "\n(b) though";     cout << "\n(c) for";     cout << "\n(d) since";     cout << "\nAnswer: "; cin >> Answer;     return Answer; } char WrongWord() {     char Wrong;     cout << "Select the wrong word that would complete the sentence";     cout << "\nFor this type of business, revenue gains are ...";     cout << "\n(a) limited";     cout << "\n(b) scarce";     cout << "\n(c) limitless";     cout << "\n(d) claiming";     cout << "\nAnswer: "; cin >> Wrong;     return Wrong; } char Right() {     char Sentence;     cout << "Select the right sentence";     cout << "\n(a) The company is expecting to reducing inventory,"          << "\n    control cost, and efficiency improvement.";     cout << "\n(b) The company expects to reduce inventory,"          << "\n    control cost, and improve efficiency.";     cout << "\n(c) The company expects to reduce inventory,"          << "\n    control cost, and improving efficiency.";     cout << "\n(d) The company is expecting to reducing inventory,"          << "\n    controlling cost, and efficiency improvement.";     cout << "\nAnswer: "; cin >> Sentence;     return Sentence; } void ValidateAnswer(const int QstNbr, const char Ans); int main() {     const int NumberOfQuestions = 5;     char ValidAnswer;     char Answer[NumberOfQuestions];     Question MCQ[] = { Sequence, Expression, Sentence, WrongWord, Right};     for(int i = 0; i < NumberOfQuestions; i++)     {         cout << "Question " << i + 1 << endl;         Answer[i] = MCQ[i]();         ValidateAnswer(i+1, Answer[i]);         cout << "\n\nPress any key to continue...";         clrscr();     }     return 0; } void ValidateAnswer(const int QstNbr, const char Ans) {     switch(QstNbr)     {     case 1:         if(Ans == 'a' || Ans == 'A')             cout << "Right Answer";         else         {             cout << "Wrong Answer - The right answer was 'a'";             cout << "\n(a) Starting at 3, 3*3=9 and 3*9=27";             cout << "\n    There is no obvious way to determine 33";         }         break;     case 2:         if(Ans == 'c' || Ans == 'C')             cout << "Right answer";         else             cout << "Wrong Answer - The right answer was 'c'";         break;     case 3:         if(Ans == 'b' || Ans == 'B')             cout << "Right answer";         else             cout << "Wrong Answer - The right answer was 'b'";         break;      case 4:         if(Ans == 'd' || Ans == 'D')             cout << "Right answer";         else             cout << "Wrong Answer - The right answer was 'd'";         break;      case 5:         if(Ans == 'b' || Ans == 'B')             cout << "Right answer";         else             cout << "Wrong Answer - The right answer was 'b'";         break;     default:         cout << "Invalid Answer";     } } Test the application Return to your programming environment and save all